Hey Mambo...Mambo Italiano...Hey Mambo!

I Love the Italianos!
How can it be possible that ever lab is my favorite? I don't know but it is and this one is not an exception. The only thing I can say is that I am so glad that olive oil is supposedly really healthy for you because I ate a ton of it with all of this yummy food.

A. Title: Basic Foccacia Bread
B. Reagents:
2 1/2 Cups Water
2 Tbsp Instant Yeast
1 Cup Extra Virgin Olive Oil
1 Tbsp Salt
6-8 Cups Unbleached White Flour
For the Topping:
1/4 Cup Extra Virgin olive oil
1 Tbsp Dry Basil
1 Tbsp Dry Thyme
1 Tbsp Dry Oregano
1 Tbsp Dry Marjoram
1 Tbsp Kosher Salt
C. Procedure Outline:
1. In a mixing bowl add water, yeast, olive oil and 3 cups flour. Mix for 5 minutes.

2. Let mixture sit for 30 minutes.
3. Add salt and enough of the remaining flour to pull the mass into a soft dough. Mix for 5 minutes.
4. Place dough into a lightly greased bowl and coat dough well to prevent the dough from drying out while rising.
5. Allow dough to double in size.
6. Once dough has doubled in size, remove from bowl and all to rest for 10 minutes.

7. Transfer dough to a lightly oiled (olive oil) baking sheet.
8. Using your fingers, gently press dough out to fill the baking sheet. Using your fingers once again, dimple the surface of the dough.
9. In a small bowl combine olive oil, dried herbs and salt. Mix to coat the dried herbs thoroughly.
10. pour olive oil mixture on top of dough and spread evenly. Be sure that all herbs are well coated with olive oil to prevent them from burning.
11. Bake in a 385 degree oven for 30 minutes or until golden brown.
12. Remove bread from baking sheet and place on a cooling rack. Allow bread to cool completely.

D. Actual Procedure and Observations:
At the start of the recipe I am glad that I knew and paid attention to the fact that the yeast needed to be set in warm water (not hot) in order to activate its chemical properties. I first discovered this about 5 years ago when I started making bread and I added cold water to the yeast. My bread was very flat. The yeast never had a chance to be activated. The next time I made it I used too hot of water and the same thing happened because it was too hot to do anything. Luckily I am now educated enough that today I used the perfect temperature of water and the yeast activated with the water, oil and flour. This mixture alone did not look too impressive and appeared to be a very plain bowl of brown water with some strange bubbles in it. However, after 30 minutes it was a frothy, foamy mixture that was ready to go somewhere. Flour and salt were added to create a very smooth dough. This was a much softer dough than I had handled before and had a very silky appearance. We covered it in oil (lots of oil) and let it sit for about 20 minutes until it had doubled in size. The fun part was adding it to the baking sheet which we had already drizzled with olive oil. Using our fingers we simply jabbed the dough out until it took the shape of the pan, added the seasonings (we simply used Italian seasoning today to prevent having to make the seasoning from scratch) and made sure that all of our seasonings were covered with oil so that they did not get burned in the oven. This recipe was quite simple to follow except for the fact that we failed to add enough olive oil to give the crispy top that you just can't help but sink your teeth into. Our neighbors added so much oil that we commented to ourselves of how greasy theirs would be and to be honest, it turned out perfect! I had foccacia jealousy. So we added more oil and seasoning to our dough making sure that all of the seasoning was covered with the oil to prevent it from burning. The dough was very soft and manageable unlike the texture of the pizza dough which was much more tough to work with. Adding the oil at the end didn't seem to have too much of an impact on the final product as it turned out just as good as our neighbors' did.

E. Discussion and Conclusion:
The chemistry behind this recipe was that of the yeast. As my procedures section discusses, the most crucial part of the recipe is ensuring that the yeast becomes active with addition of the warm water. Baker's yeast can ferment or respire depending upon environmental conditions. In the presence of oxygen respiration takes place, without oxygen present, fermentation occurs. The released carbon dioxide causes dough to rise and to hold it high. The produced alcohol contributes to the bread's flavor. The optimal temperature for yeast to ferment sugar is 32°C. In warmer temperature (45 °C) the yeast cells will die which is what caused my bread to die so many years ago.
Our recipe turned out so great this time simply because the dough was able to sit the full time that it needed to for the yeast to be able to complete its reaction with oxygen and the sugars which are found in the flour, which I think gave us a very chewy bread in the end. We also got a nice golden brown color which was caused by the sugar.


A. Title: Lemon Basil Pasta
B. Reagents:
2 Cups Flour
2 Eggs
1 Tbsp Lemon Zest
2 tsp Dried Basil
1 Tbsp Extra Virgin Olive Oil
1 tsp Salt
C. Procedure Outline:
1. Place flour in a large pile on the counter and create a circular well in the center.
2. In a small mixing bowl combine eggs, lemon zest, basil, olive oil and salt. Mix together.
3. Add the egg mixture to the well in the flour.
4. Stir the egg and flour mixture together until combined. If mixture is too dry, simply add a little water until you reach the desired consistency.
5. Knead dough until smooth. Cover with plastic wrap and let dough rest for about 10 minutes.

6. Roll dough out to desired thickness and cut into desired noodle shapes.

7. If using a pasta rolling machine, follow manufacturer's directions.


D. Actual Procedure and Observations:
I have never made pasta before so this was a strange and new experience. It was actually mush easier than I would have thought. I have no idea why I have never tried making it before. It was a strange idea using the counter as the mixing surface but fun. Making the well of flour was easy but adding the liquid ingredients was not so easy. We added it and the flour soon became a volcano with the egg mix running down all sides and causing our well to collapse. We ended up smashing it all together in the end. It didn't look as pretty and as organized as other's but in the end it seemed to work just fine. Our dough was a little dry which was remedied by adding a small amount of water (I would guess about 1-2 Tbsp). We had to be careful that we didn't add too much because we still wanted a dry enough dough that we could process the dough through the pasta cutter. We converted our large mass of dough into two small perfect balls and then covered them with plastic allowing them to rest for 15 minutes. Once it was our turn to put it through the pasta cutter we flattened it out first by using the rolling setting and slowing decreasing the size of the dough until it was as thick (for me) or thin (for Jen) as we wanted it. We had to pre-shape the dough as flat as we could get it with our hands so that it had enough room to go into the pasta cutter. I chose the fettuccine sized setting and Jen chose the spaghetti. This was the best part. It was really fun to see the dough take on the shapes that we are all so familiar with. I took my pasta home and cooked it for dinner with some olive oil and Parmesan cheese. Yummy.
E. Discussion and Conclusion:
Since there is no yeast in noodles this is how they are separated from breads. They have no need to rise! If they did we would basically be eating mushy bread instead of the yummy chewy noodle that we all love. The eggs in pasta are mainly used for coloring and flavor. The flour that us typically used is Semolina as it contains very little free starch. Semolina has an interesting property in that is required less water to be used in dough as there are not any damaged starches to compete with the protein in absorbing it. This is most beneficial if the dough it going to be dried and cooked for eating at another time. Semolina is also preferred as its gluten matrix is very strong and is able to withstand the shaping process without falling apart.

A. Title: Ricotta Cheese
B. Reagents:
1 Gallon Whole Milk
1 1/2 tsp Citric Acid
1 tsp Salt
C. Procedure Outline:
1. Add the milk, citric acid and salt to a heavy bottomed pan (not aluminum or copper).

2. Heat mixture to 200 degrees. At this temperature the curd and whey will separate.

3. Turn heat off and allow to cool to 100 degrees.
4. Strain through a cheesecloth; then, tie the cheesecloth up and allow the ricotta cheese to drain for an additional 20 minutes.



D. Actual Procedure and Observations:
This was an interesting thing to make. How on earth could it take a whole gallon of milk to make such a small amount of cheese? We added the ingredients together and just sat and watched, waiting for something to happen. We had the temp at Med-High and waited for about 15-20 minutes before we saw anything happening. Suddenly the separation of the solids and the liquids became visible though the change was slight. The curds gradually increased as the separation became more prevalent. We saw small bubbles form from a very small boil and then without warning I saw about 5 large bubbles and a bunch of steam escape from the milky broth. Our curds were much smaller in size compared to our neighbors' and upon investigation one would have assumed that something had gone asunder. However when our curds were pushed out of the way we were able to the whey was clear with a yellow tone proving that a distinct separation had occurred. We immediately removed the cheese from the heat and let it cool for a good 15 minutes. Having previously prepared our cheesecloth and colander, we poured our concoction (over the sink) and collected our reward. There was a healthy portion of cheese sitting in the colander which we tied up into a neat ball and let it sit until near the end of class. Much of the moisture was drained and after about 40 minutes we had a reasonably handsome ball of cheese which we added salt to and bagged up to take home (mine went home to the hubby as I am a cottage cheese girl and not at all a fan of the ricotta).
E. Discussion and Conclusion:
Upon my internet researching I learned the meaning of the word ricotta and technically ricotta is not a cheese at all because it is simply a cheese by-product. Its name, ricotta, means cooked again which is a great explanation as to how it is made...simply by cooking milk that has already been processed. Ricotta is typically made from the whey that has been drained from such cheeses as mozzarella, provolone, and other cheeses. Today in our experiment we made it the old fashioned way...from milk. A whole gallon of milk! Typically ricotta is made by letting the whey sit over night 12-15 hours but we used citric acid which served as a catalyst and allowed our reaction to occur in a fraction of the time. For those in the class who were unable to form the curds they were instructed to use more of the acid which allowed them to move forward. A catalyst serves as a means to make a reaction go faster without altering the reaction itself. So we were able to add the citric acid without having it effect our end product. The ricotta production relies on allowing the inoculated bacteria in whey to further ferment the liquid. The remaining sugars in the milk are converted to lactic acid which lowers the pH of the whey. The solubility of the protein in acidified whey is reduced and when we added heat to the acidified whey, the heat denatures the proteins causing it to come out as a fine curd. Salt is added for flavor and serves no other purpose in the creation process.

A. Title: Pizza Crust
B. Reagents:
1 1/2 Cups Water
1 Tbsp Yeast
1 tsp Baking Powder
1/3 Cup Canola Oil
3-4 Cups Flour
1 Tbsp Salt
C. Procedure Outline:
1. In a large bowl add the water and yeast. Gently stir to mix. Let mixture sit for 10 minutes.
2. Mix the flour and baking powder together.
3. Add the flour to the water and knead into a soft dough.
4. Allow dough mixture to rest for about 20 minutes.
5. Shape into desired pizza shape and par-bake in a 500 degree oven for about 5 minutes.

6. Top partially baked pizza dough with favorite toppings and continue to bake until cheese is bubbling and crust is golden brown (about 7 additional minutes).
D. Actual Procedure and Observations:
As a repeat of the foccacia bread above the yeast was added to warm water to allow the yeast to begin activation. Once it was allowed to sit and react to form a froth the flour and baking powder were added until a soft dough was formed. This recipe was textbook as it occurred exactly how it was written. We allowed the dough to rest for 25 minutes which allowed a great network of air to be formed and then panned the bread and pre-baked it creating an easy surface to form a delicious dish.We took it out of the oven when a slight browning began to occur and then took it home for a homemade pizza feast.
E. Discussion and Conclusion:
In this recipe we not only had the yeast that acted as a leaven-er but also baking powder. Baking powders are used when a dough is a "weak dough" which just means that a dough is not elastic enough to contain carbon dioxide indefinitely. So a baking powder is added which allows the dough to have the light and fluffy result that is desired. Baking powder contains baking soda and an acid in the form of salt crystals that dissolve in water. Ground dry starch is also added to the powder which prevents premature reactions from occurring. Most powders are double-acting which just means that they produce an initial set of gas bubbles upon adding the powder to the batter which is needed as they form little gas spaces in the batter or dough and then again activate during the baking process which allows the little gas spaces to expand to a size needed for a light texture. When combined with the yeast, the baking powder offers a perfect density and lightness to a perfect pizza crust. The yeast is also great and necessary not only for its chemical properties but also for such a yummy flavor.

I have never been to Italy (it is definitely on my list) but I sure love their food and love to pretend sometimes that I am an Italiana Mambita!

Atkins Diet Mover Over! 'Cause We're Havin' a Carb Fest!

Bread Lab #3. Carb-fest! We are doing a health challenge at work and the challenge for this wee was no white carbs. I failed miserably but have to admit that it was well worth it. Y-U-M-M-Y!
Since the chemistry is similar for all of these experiments I thought I would discuss it in general and then add more detail where required.
Yeast: a group of single-celled fungi but specifically for baking there is a yeast called Brewer's Yeast which is used as a leaven-er. Carbon dioxide and alcohol are the main components involved in the metabolism of yeast using sugar as its third agent. The chemical equation: C6H12O6 -----> 2C2H5OH + 2CO2. The yeast requires sugar as a very important player in order to successfully react and first consumes the single sugars of the reaction and then moves onto the double-unit molecules of sugar. When the yeast is ready to be used it must be added to warm water (not too hot and not too cold) or else it will not react. This is a very important understanding when dealing with yeast. Literally, not a reaction will occur without the proper temperature of water. Such a finicky thing! Dry yeast is still somewhat of a mystery but it can be assumed that when the yeast cells are dried that some amount of the carbohydrates are left and concentrated inside. When the warm water is added some of these carbohydrates burst out of their cells to achieve balance and serve as the energy for the metabolisms to occur. If the temperature of the water is too cool it will prevent the cells from reconstituting while the higher temperatures damage the cells. Yeast serves as a leavening agent as it releases carbon dioxide which is captured in the dough creating pockets of air allowing for a light and fluffy texture. Proofing the yeast simply means that you are allowing the yeast to react with the water and the sugars. Before starting the main recipe you proof the yeast by letting it begin its reaction in water prior to adding any ingredients. Allowing it to sit for 10-15 minutes ensures that the yeast is reactive and that it is going to do its job. As the dough progresses there is a period of kneading which is very important in the creation of delicious dough. One of the most important things that takes place during the kneading process is the development of gluten. As the flour that makes up the dough is moistened and stirred, the gluten begins to form and also gains strength as the dough is subjected to the kneading process. Gluten is the binding agent within the dough, allowing the loaf to take on a cohesive texture that will allow the substance to not fall apart during baking. The presence of the gluten also sets the stage for another good reason to knead bread dough as the gluten is acting as a binding agent, it is also helping to create small air pockets of bubbles in the dough. This is very important, as these bubbles are necessary to allow for the formation of small pockets of carbon dioxide as the dough is rising. The carbon dioxide is created by the interaction of the yeast with the other ingredients in the recipe as explained above. By filling the small air pockets in the structure of the dough, the bread has a chance to rise and become supple enough to result in a loaf of bread that is light, flavorful, and airy.

A. Title: Basic French Bread Experiment #1
(white flour gluten structure)
B. Reagents:
2 1/2 Cups Water
2 Tbsp Yeast
1 Tbsp Salt
6-8 Cups Unbleached White Flour
Corn Meal for Baking Sheets
C. Outline Procedure:
1. In a mixing bowl, add water and yeast. Allow mixture to sit for ten minutes.
2. Add 3 Cups of Flour. Mix for 5 minutes.
3. Let mixture sit for 1 hour.
4. Add salt and enough of the remaining flour to pull mixture into a soft dough.
5. Once a soft dough is formed, knead for 5 minutes.

6. Place dough in a lightly greased bowl and coat dough well to prevent it from drying out while rising.
7. Allow dough to double in size.
8. Once dough has doubled in size, split dough into two equal masses. Shape into a traditional French loaf.
9. Place newly shaped loaves on a baking sheet that has corn meal sprinkled on it.
10. Bake in a 425 degree oven until the internal temperature reads 210 degrees.
11. Place bread on a cooling rack and allow to cool.
D. Actual Procedure and Observations:
This recipe went rather smoothly without any hiccups. We ommitted the extending rising time but other than that the recipe was followed exactly. It was easy to add the flour and to take over with kneading. We didn't let the dough rise in the bowl with oil which I think caused a bit of drying out but it didn't sit for all too long so I don't think our final product was effected by that. We did forget to add the salt at the right time so we ended up adding it when we were kneading the dough. We just added a little at a time to prevent salt pockets but it worked out just fine and I am so glad that we added it because we forgot to add it to the wheat and it was not so good!
E. Discussion and Conclusion:
Our yeast was allowed to proof for about 10 minutes as instructed by the recipe, this obviously included the water. The flour was added and mixed until very smooth and combined which took about 5 minutes. Due to time limitations we were unable to let the dough sit for an hour and only gave it about 5 minutes. In an ideal circumstance we would have allowed it to rise allowing a strong gluten network to form but this was my favorite bread with or without the extra rising/kneading time. Very chewy and moist.

A. Title: Basic French Bread Experiment #2
(whole wheat flour gluten structure)
B. Reagents:
2 1/2 Cups Water
2 Tbsp Yeast
1 Tbsp Salt
6-8 Cups Whole Wheat Flour
Corn Meal for baking sheets
C. Procedure Outline:
1. In a mixing bowl, add water and yeast. Allow mixture to sit for ten minutes.
2. Add 3 cups of flour. Mix for 5 minutes.
3. Let mixture sit for 1 hour.
4. Add salt and enough of the remaining flour to pull mixture into a soft dough.
5. Once a soft dough is formed, knead for 5 minutes.

6. Place dough in a lightly greased bowl and coat dough well to prevent it from drying out while rising.
7. Allow to double in size.
8. Once dough has doubled in size, split dough into two equal masses. Shape into a traditional French loaf.
9. Place newly shaped loaves on a baking sheet that has corn meal sprinkled on it.
10. Bake in a 425 degree oven until the internal temperature reads 210 degrees.
11. Place bread on a cooling rack and allow to cool.
D. Actual Procedure and Observations:
This bread was identical to the white french with the minor exception of the flour. We had the whole grains that we finely blended in the blender to form a rich flour. We let the yeast rise just like in the previous recipe and then added the remaining ingredients...minus the salt. Completely forgot to add the salt and it made a huge difference. It was more difficult to knead this dough as the batter stuck to our hands and when it dried it dried like a paste that didn't want to let go! It was so messy. We however knew that something was missing to our dough as it was not stretchy and bouncy as the first dough. It was very crumbly and gritty in texture. I had made wheat bread in the past and thought it was strange that the recipe called for white flour as well but today it all became apparent. The wheat flour needs something more added to it to make it all stick together and for the gluten network to form. So to keep our bread from falling apart we used about 1 cup of white flour and it was almost better than the white bread (if only we had remembered to add the salt!).
E. Discussion and Conclusion:
The only thing that I would have changed with this recipe is that I would have added something to make the wheat pull together more. During the end of class discussion it was made clear to us that in order to make a true whole wheat flour bread some type of agent must be added to allow a great gluten network to be formed. This could be by means of xanthum gum which is a polysaccharide, derived from the bacterial coat of Xanthomonas campestris, used as a food additive as a food thickening agent and a stabilizer to prevent ingredients from separating. The proportions that we were given in class explained that for every cup of whole wheat flour 1 Tbsp of wheat gluten should be added to allow the dough to come together. Everything else worked exactly how the white bread above worked as the explanation above describes with the yeast and the gluten network.


A. Title: Basic Loaf Pan White Bread Experiment #1
(milk scalded)
B. Reagents:
2 tsp Yeast
2 Tbsp Sugar
1 Cup Cooled Scalded Milk
4 Tbsp Melted Butter
1 tsp Salt
3-4 Cups Flour
C. Procedure Outline:
1. In a bowl combine yeast, sugar and milk.
2. Let stand until foamy, about 10 minutes.
3. Add the flour, a little at a time, mixing until the mass pulls together into a soft dough.
4. Continue to mix until the dough is soft and satiny but still firm, 4 to 5 minutes.
5. Dust with additional flour, if necessary, to keep the dough from sticking.

6. Place in an oiled bowl and coat well to prevent dough from drying out while proofing.
7. Once the dough has doubled in size, shape it as desired.
8. Bake in a 350 degree oven for approximately 30 minutes or until internal temperature reaches 190 degrees.

D. Actual Procedure and Observations:
The only thing in this recipe that differs much from the other was the addition of the scalded milk. We didn't actually do the scalding ourselves which was nice since we had so much to do today but we did discuss the process of scalding milk. You have to be very careful that the milk not burn on the bottom of the pan and to also be careful that if this does happen to not scrape the burnt milk and incorporate it in the liquid. We allowed the milk, yeast and sugar to sit together and have the yeast react with its partners. (See the discussion below to talk about the importance of scalding the milk here. There is a reason we did it!) All other ingredients were added after the yeast had its alone time. As before the recipe called for allowing the dough to double in size which we almost were able to do as this dough was started mid-way through the class but not quite long enough. It took a while to bake this dough as our loaf was quite thick and required a much longer cooking time.
E. Discussion and Conclusion:
Why scald the milk? Such a funny thing to do before adding in all of the other ingredients that would mask the flavor of the scalded milk, right? I did some research on the matter and while taste is one reason why scalded milk is done in recipes there is one more very important reason. There is an enzyme in milk, protease, which inhibits gluten formation. Pasteurization doesn't reach temperatures sufficient to destroy it so scalding the milk is required. Protease is an enemy of yeast and if the protease isn't disabled, you can end up with a weak sticky dough which collapses like an over-proofed loaf. If you're baking a bread rich in dairy and sugar, scalding and skimming off the skin will result in a lighter, more tender bread. Which was true in our case. This bread was very light and chewy. I think once again, if we would have had more time to allow the bread to proof it could have been a bit lighter but compared to the second loaf it was much lighter.



A. Title: Basic Loaf Pan White Bread Experiment #2
(without scalded milk)
B. Reagents:
2 tsp Yeast
2 Tbsp Sugar
1 Cup Milk
4 Tbsp Melted Butter
1 tsp Salt
3-4 Cups Flour
C. Procedure Outline:
1. In a bowl combine yeast, sugar and milk.
2. Let stand until foamy about 10 minutes.
3. Add the flour a little at a time, mixing until the mass pulls together into a soft dough.
4. Continue to mix until the dough is soft and satiny but still firm, 4-5 minutes.
5. Dust with additional flour if necessary, to keep the dough from sticking.

6. Place in an oiled bowl and coat well to prevent dough from drying out while proofing.
7. Once the dough has doubled in size, shape it as desired.
8. Bake in a 350 degree oven for approximately 30 minutes or until internal temperature reaches 190 degrees.

D. Actual Procedure and Observations:
I hate to defer to the above recipe but it was exactly the same as the recipe above without having the milk scalded. Everything else worked exactly the same in this recipe. The dough was a little different to work with as it was so easy to knead and smoothest in texture of all of our other bread but it didn't rise as much. The final product also turned out to be much smoother, smaller and darkest in color than the other recipes.
E. Discussion and Conclusion:
The difference between the two loaves can be explained by the milk. The first recipe the dough was lighter, fluffier and also less smooth. It ended up looking a little rough. However it was also larger in size than this loaf and upon the taste test it was much more chewy and light. This recipe was a bit tough and small although very smooth and pretty. I was surprised to see how much of a difference the two breads had just because of the scalded milk having lost the protease which allows the yeast to do its job. Chemistry and food are amazing. In the photo you can see the two loaves side by side and the recipe with the scalded milk shows a much larger loaf.

A. Title: Irish Soda Bread Experiment #1
(with baking soda)
B. Reagents:
2-2 1/2 Cups Flour
1 tsp Baking Soda
1 tsp Salt
1 Cup Buttermilk
C. Procedure Outline:
1. Preheat oven to 425 degrees.
2. Combine all dry ingredients and whisk together.
3. Add the buttermilk to form a sticky dough. Place on a floured work surface and gently knead.

4. Shape into a round, and place onto a prepared baking sheet. Cut a cross into the top of the bread.
5. Bake for approximately 45 minutes or until golden brown.
D. Actual Procedure and Observations:
This recipe called for buttermilk which we did not have so we made our own (which is a very handy skill to have when you are in the middle of the recipe and realize you don't have buttermilk!). We simply took the milk and added about 1 Tbsp of vinegar, allowed it to sit for about 8 minutes and we were ready to go. This recipe is vastly different from the aforementioned recipes as there was no yeast involved at all. I reminded me of baking a cake as the dry ingredients are generally all mixed together as well as the yet and then they are all slowly combined to each other forming the batter. Once all ingredients were added together the dough was created and it was much more difficult to knead than the yeast doughs. It was much tougher and as you can see in the picture it was very dense and did not rise all that much. The end result of the dough tasted very much like that of a biscuit in texture and flavor. The loaf was a bit larger than the following loaf when both were finished. We were not able to get an after shot of the bread as we were scrambling to get the bread finished before the end of class. This bread was much smaller than the following recipe.
E. Discussion and Conclusion:
Since there was not any yeast called for in this recipe we were dependent upon another chemical reaction to take place to allow for the rising of the dough creating a bread and not simply a cracker. This became an acid-base reaction. With the acidity of the faux butter milk and the base of the soda our bread was able to rise. Baking soda can by used as the main leavening agent if the batter is already acidic enough to react with it and create carbon dioxide, which it was due to the acidity of the buttermilk. The baking soda-buttermilk ratio provided the leavening action of four times its volume of baking powder, which has the acid and alkaline components.

A. Title: Irish Soda Bread Experiment #2
(with baking powder)
B. Reagents:
2-2 1/2 Cups Flour
1 tsp Baking Powder
1 tsp Salt
1 Cup Buttermilk
C. Outline Procedure:
1. Preheat oven to 425 degrees.
2. Combine all dry ingredients and whisk together.
3. Add the buttermilk to form a sticky dough. Place on a floured work surface and gently knead.
4. Shape into a round and place onto a prepared baking sheet. Cut a cross into the top of the bread.

5. Bake for approximately 45 minutes or until golden brown.
D. Actual Procedure and Observations:
This recipe was exact to the recipe above, even down to the making of the buttermilk. The only difference was that of the replacement of the baking soda for baking powder. The doughs were very similar in the making up until the end when the final dough here was a bit smaller in size than the previous. It also had a bit more of a yellow appearance to it.
E. Discussion and Conclusion:
Baking powder has baking soda in it as well as an acid in the form of salt crystals that dissolve in water. There is also a dry starch present that is added to prevent the premature reactions from occuring in humid air and thereby diluting the powder. Most baking powders are double-acting which basically means that they act once when they are first added to the mixture releasing air bubbles and then again during the baking process when the air bubbles grown in size offering a airy and light texture. This dough is also an acid-base reaction with the salt playing a roll as the acid with an additional player of the buttermilk once again serving as the acid. The base in the reaction is the baking soda. Comparing the tastes and textures of all breads I must say that I prefer the yeast breads much more than I do these last two. Both have a taste similar to that of biscuits but I am a regular bread kind of girl. My husband however much preferred these last two. He's a biscuits and grits kind of guy!


This gives a whole new perspective on take and bake!

Did Someone Say Something About CANDY?

Lab #2. Tough to beat. I left this lab feeling very happy and full. I have a feeling I might gain weight from this class which conflicts immensely with my 2011 resolutions. Oh well. When in Rome right?

A. Title: English Toffee
B. Reagents:
1/2 cup butter
1/2 cup sugar
1/4 cup water
1 Tbsp corn syrup
1 tsp vanilla
C. Procedures Outline:
1. Combine water and sugar in a large sauce pan. Add the butter and corn syrup.
2. Bring the contents to a boil, and gently stir until the butter has melted.

3. Brush down the sides of the pan if needed.
4. Allow mixture to continue boiling until the temperature reaches about 300 degrees.

5. Pour toffee out onto a prepared surface.


6. Dip in chocolate and coat with roasted almonds.
D. Actual Procedure:
My lab partner made me very nervous as we started this lab. Apparently toffee is her favorite candy and she has been looking forward to making this recipe since the beginning of class. She told me we could not mess this one up...or else. Pressure? I think so. However, I believe it turned out amazingly if I do say so myself. Brian gave us a bit of angst with his caution to ensure that we did not have sugar crystals in our mixture or on the side of the pan. The detriment was that simply one crystal could cause our gorgeous toffee to revert back into a sugary crystalline mess preventing us from consuming the yummy goodness. Combining the ingredients was a breeze as was the brushing of the crystals. I think we were a little too paranoid here and may have done this step more than necessary but it sure made is feel better. The mixture was a translucent-yellow color and upon boiling the smell became strong and very inviting. We continued to boil until all of a sudden our mixture changed to a beautiful caramel color and large bubbles formed in the liquid. We immediately took it off of the heat and poured it into the prepared cookie sheet. The colors formed incredible patterns that gave the toffee a very leopard/tiger-like appearance. This class is definitely changing me. I never before thought of toffee as beautiful but I can now say it with conviction. Gorgeous! Our toffee had a darker color to it which caused some concern as we thought we may have burnt it. However, upon discussion we learned that there are simply variations in flavor varying based on the color. The darker the color the richer the flavor and since I LOVE dark chocolate I apparently also like dark toffee.
E. Discussion and Conclusion:
In general candy is made by cooking a sugar concoction (highly concentrated in sugar) to extreme temperatures. Add the sugar, syrup and water boil (the liquid phase), the mixture loses molecules through its transformation to the gaseous phase leaving the solids behind. Because this mixture is a sugar syrup, this means that the sugar molecules account for the greater proportion of all of the molecules that are left in solution. The syrup gets more and more concentrated in the mixture as the water is slowly boiled off. At a certain time point during the candy making process all of the water that has been added will dissolve, the mixture will boil and the mixture will become more concentrated with sugar as the boiling point increases. This is where the temperature becomes very important. The shorter amount of time that you allow a candy to boil, the softer it will be as you are preventing all of the water from boiling out. If you allow the candy to continue to boil until it reaches a higher temperature, you are allowing more of the water to boil off thus creating a harder candy.
Interestingly enough, temperature outside (the weather) has a huge effect on the success of the candy product especially when making toffee. On clear, dry days it works to simply follow the recipe and make sure that the sugar to water ratio is correct and there will be no problem in making the candy. However, on humid or moist days it is recommended that the boiling point be pushed a little more than you would have on a dry day to make the candy a bit harder than desired. The reasoning behind this is due to the moisture in the air. Believe it or not the moisture will be re-absorbed into the candy once the candy is finished! Crazy chemistry. I love it! Today was dry with a bit of overcast so our toffee ended up exactly where we wanted it. Had it been a wet and humid day we would have cooked it just a little bit longer allowing the boiling point to increase a tad higher causing more of the water to boil off just in case some of the moisture in the air was re-absorbed by the candy.
One thing that had me nervous this entire lab was the fear of crystallization. When you raise your candy temperature to 300 degrees and then cool it down to room temperature, having just one sugar crystal on the side of the pan can cause the whole batch to revert back to a crystallized form. This is caused due to over saturation. When the candy mixture is formed there is a perfect balance between the water and the sugar molecules bonding together that they are in perfect saturation and able to hold a tight bond making a solid mixture. This saturation limit depends on temperature and a hot liquid whose molecules are moving at such a rapid pace prevent foreign molecules from invading the mixture. If the mixture is cold and slurpy this can't be prevented and the mixture can fall apart. If there is the slightest change in that saturation bonding it will shift the balance of water molecules bonded to the sugar molecules and disrupt the saturation, causing the whole thing to fall apart...which would be a very sad sight. This actually happened in class and it was very neat to see it almost immediately separate. The chemistry behind toffee is amazing!
Toffee is considered a noncrystalline candy as it is created by boiling the sugar syrup mixture at a very high temperature, high en ought that there is only 1-2% moisture. After which it is cooled very quickly without any mixing or disturbance preventing the crystals to develop. The 2% moisture is the reasoning behind the dry and brittle texture as well as the dark brown carmel color.

A. Title: Water Fondant
B. Reagents:
2 Cups Sugar
1/2 Cup Water
2 Tbsp Corn Syrup
C. Outline Procedure:
1. Combine the sugar, water and corn syrup in a large sauce pan over medium high heat. Stir until the sugar dissolves. Cover the pan and allow the sugar syrup to boil for about 3 minutes.
2. Remove the lid and cook the fondant to 233 degrees.
3. Pour the hot sugar solution onto a buttered baking sheet. Allow the sugar solution to cool until it is warm but not hot to the touch.

4. Dampen a dough scraper with water and push the syrup into a pile in the middle of the baking sheet. Begin working the fondant by "creaming" it. Continue working the fondant in a figure eight ,scraping it back to the center of the baking sheet. Gradually the fondant will turn opaque and creamy. After about 5-10 minutes it will be come stiff, crumbly and hard.
5.When the fondant reaches this stage, moisten your hand and begin to knead the fondant like bread dough. Stop kneading once the fondant is a smooth ball without lumps.

6. When the fondant is smooth it is ready for dipping in chocolate.
D. Actual Procedure and Observations:
We added the first ingredients as described in step one and used the exact heat that was directed: Medium-high. Everything quickly dissolved into a clear mixture that appeared almost like water. We allowed the recipe come to a boil and then immediately covered the pan allowing it to boil for exactly 3 minutes. We inserted the candy thermometer (being careful not to allow the thermometer to touch the bottom or sides of the pan) and let it continue to boil for about 5 more minutes until it reached an exact temperature of 233 degrees, not one degree higher. We immediately removed the pan from heat and slowly poured it on the metal counter surface that had been cleaned and sprayed with a non-stick cooking spray. It spread out to an area of approximately 2 feet by 1 foot and allowed it to cool. As we were pouring we were afraid that the batter would run on the floor so we poured very slowly and made sure we compensated for where the batter was running. It took about 20 minutes to cool to a warm but not hot temperature allowing it to be handled. We began creaming the watery mixture using the figure eight pattern back and forth for about 12 minutes. The appearance slowly changed from being entirely transparent to being a milky cream. Just as explained in the directions above, the fondant soon became very pasty and difficult to cream and soon became very crumbled and formed. As we began to knead it like bread dough it got softer and softer. The end product really showed through the following day as it was very soft and tender. I had no idea that fondant was responsible for the filling in chocolates and I was so happy to learn this. Maple chocolates are my absolute favorite and I think when I have a free weekend I am going to try to make them myself! Yum.
E. Discussion and Conclusion:
The chemistry behind the fondants is practically identical to that of the toffee. The only difference is the temperature at which we allowed the mixture to boil. The toffee was raised to 300 degrees where as with the fondant we only allowed to boil to 233 degrees exact. The difference between these two temperatures is the moisture content that is allowed to boil out. Fondant is considered a crystalline candy producing very fine crystals maintaining about 10% moisture. This pure sugar fondant is made up of approximately equal portions of sucrose crystals which are the solids in the mixture and a thick syrup made up of sugar crystals representing the liquid. It's consistence depends on how much actual water is left after the boiling process (concentration), cooling and beating have occurred. Just as with the toffee, if this recipe is heated too high of a temperature it will become hard because of loss of too much water. Allowing the fondant to sit overnight allows it to continue to undergo change in a process called "ripening". It is thought that this process allows the smallest of crystals to dissolve back into the syrup form leaving more space for the typical sized crystal to move past each other.

A. Title: Cream Fondant
B. Reagents:
2 Cups Sugar
1 Cup Heavy Cream
2 Tbsp Corn Syrup
C. Procedure Outline:
1. Combine the sugar, heavy cream and corn syrup in a large sauce pan over medium high heat. Stir until the sugar dissolves. Cover the pan and allow the sugar syrup to boil for about 3 minutes.
2. Remove the lid and cook the fondant to 233 degrees.

3. Pour the hot sugar solution onto a buttered baking sheet. Allow the sugar solution to cool until it is warm but not hot to the touch.
4. Dampen a dough scraper with water and push the syrup into a pile in the middle of the baking sheet. Begin working the fondant by "creaming" it. Continue working the fondant in a figure eight scraping it back to the center of the baking sheet. Gradually the fondant will turn opaque and creamy. After about 5-10 minutes it will become stiff, crumbly and hard.

5. When the fondant reaches this stage, moisten your hand and begin to knead the fondant like bread dough. Stop kneading once the fondant is a smooth ball without lumps.

6. When the fondant is smooth it is ready for dipping in chocolate.

We combined all of the ingredients just as with the water fondant but used the cream rather than the water as the liquid measurement. This syrup once we began to cook it was white in appearance, obviously due to the cream. We allowed the ingredients to combine at a medium-high heat and just before placing the lid we could see that the liquid was uniform and that the sugar molecules had dissolved into the milk and corn syrup making it look like thick milk. The lid was placed and the milk was allowed to boil for exactly three minutes at which point the lid was removed and a candy thermometer was once again placed (not touching the bottom or the sides of the pan) allowing the mixture to boil for about 8 minutes until it reached the exact temperature of 233 degrees. It was then removed from the heat and once again poured carefully upon the pre-prepared surface. It took another 20 minutes to cool the liquid until it was warm to the touch and then the creaming process began. This happened exactly the same as the previous fondant with exactly the same results although the creamy color began from the beginning rather that more toward the end of the creaming process. In our experience, this recipe was a little more easy to work with and seemed a bit creamier during the kneading process. Perhaps a bit softer.
E. Discussion and Conclusion:
The chemistry behind this recipe is exactly the same as the water fondant but rather than having water in the mixture to work with there was cream giving it more of a fatty liquid material versus water. This pure sugar fondant is made up of approximately equal portions of sucrose crystals and milk solids which are the solids in the mixture and a thick syrup made up of fat and sugar crystals representing the liquid. This mixture differs from the water fondant in that it is more similar to that of a creamy fudge with the fat that has been added rather than just the water. All other chemsitry however is identical. The textures were very similar, especially the next day. The taste however was dramatic for me. I loved the water fondant and could have eaten a ton of it dipped in chocolate. I loved the simpled flavor of it and the simple sweetness to it. I could tell a huge difference in the creamy fondant as it had a dairy flavor to it which I did not care for.

A. Title: Roasting Almonds
B. Reagents:
2 Pounds Almond Pieces (amount may vary)
C. Outline Procedure:
Spread almonds evenly on a baking sheet and place in a 400 degree oven for about 10 minutes or until almonds are aromatic and golden in color.
D. Actual Procedure and Observations:
We did not get to actually roast the almods but were able to watch them in the oven at they baked during class. The procedure is exactly as described above. The almonds were place, single layer, on the baking sheet and placed in the oven at 400 degrees for 10 minutes. We could definitly smell when they were finished. It was a lovely aroma that made the kitchen smell so sweet and warm.
E. Discussion and Conclusion:
The almods did turn darker in color as they were cooked and this was due all in part to the sugars. This is a process called camelization which is the browning of sugar, a process used in cooking for the resulting nutty flavor and brown color. As the process occurs sugars are released, producing the characteristic caramel flavor. This is very similar to the Maillard reaction, caramelization is a type of non-enzymatic browning. However, unlike the Maillard reaction, caramelization is pyrolysis, as opposed to reaction with amino acids.
As mentioned above the maillard reaction is an important one that needs to be addressed as it will have an influence in many of the experiments that we will be completing in this class. The Maillard reaction is a chemical reaction between an amino acid and a reducing sugar which will typically require heat. It is one of the key players in the preparation or presentation of many types of food, and, like caramelization, is a form of non-enzymatic browning. The reactive carbonyl group of the sugar reacts with the nucleophilic amino group of the amino acid, and forms a group of molecules responsible for a range of odors and flavors. This process is accelerated in an alkaline environment as the amino groups are deprotonated and, hence, have an increased nucleophilicity. The type of the amino acid determines the resulting flavor. In the process, hundreds of different flavor compounds are created. So not only do the sugars that are produced form a gorgeous color and tone to the food that we make but also are responsible for the different flavors that are created. Thank you Mr. Maillard (and wikipedia) for explaining this all to us!

The Essentials of Emulsion

First week in the lab was a very pleasing experience for my taste buds and my soul. We made pudding and let me just say that I will never eat pudding again unless it is homemade and hot off the stove! Y-U-M! We also made Mayonnaise and Butter but the pudding was a hit. The art of emulsion was the topic of learning for this lab and may I say that afterward I felt quite "emulsified"! Read on to find the science behind these culinary staples that everyone needs in their kitchen or even in their bellies!

A. Title: Mayonnaise Experiment #1 with Egg Yolk
B. Reagents:
1 large egg, separated (reserve whites for pudding)
2 tsp Dijon mustard
3/4-1 Cup Canola Oil
1 Tbsp Fresh Lemon Juice
Salt and Pepper to Taste
C. Procedure Outline:
1. In a large bowl, begin whisking one egg yolk and dijon mustard together.

2. Slowly begin to add the oil almost one drop at a time while constantly whisking.

3. When the desired consistency is reached, add the lemon juice and salt to taste.
4. Store in a refrigerator for up to 5 days.
D. Actual Procedure:
Upon mixing the yolk and mustard together a great paste was formed in a gorgeous mustard-yellow color. We were very cautious to add the oil slowly as the recipe instructs. We truly added the oil almost one drop at a time and at first did not see much of a change to the egg and mustard mix other than it got a little more runny. It was a great arm workout as we had to continue to whisk to prevent the oil from overwhelming the mixture. Our neighbors added their oil too quickly and soon found themselves with a bowl of oil, mustard and yolk! As we continued to beat ours a thick off white mixture developed and mayonnaise appeared before our eyes! I don't love mayo but couldn't help but have some pride for this homemade goodness we had just created. Lemon juice and salt (about a tsp) were added for flavor. Like I said...I am not a fan of mayo but it tasted better than any mayo I have ever had.
E. Discussion and Conclusion:
The key to making mayonnaise is emulsion! Emulsion is simply a mixture of two liquids that normally can't be combined. The art of emulsifying is done by slowly adding one ingredient to another while simultaneously mixing rapidly. This disperses and suspends tiny droplets of one liquid through another. However, the two liquids would quickly separate again if an emulsifier were not added. Emulsifiers are liaisons between the two liquids and serve to stabilize the mixture. The vegetable oil is stabilized by the egg yolk via the molecule lecithin, which is a fat emulsifier. Egg whites are omitted from the recipe mainly because they do not contain lecithin and would not provide the emulsion for the mayo. It basically would be a useless ingredient (although to a dieter the egg white is a dream!). One would assume that mayonnaise would be extremely oily as its main component is oil but it isn't all that greasy. The key to making mayonnaise is to avoid having the components of the emulsion separate back into the components. No matter how much you mix the oil, it will always separate into a goopey mess unless you include the egg yolk as a stabilizer. The lecithin in the egg yolk emulsifies everything holding it all together. This is what makes mayonnaise so dang fluffy. The lemon is a bonus for flavor but also adds a bit to the reaction by slightly coating the oil molecules assisting in the emulsion.

A. Title: Mayonnaise Experiment #2 (without egg yolk...a funny joke?)
B. Reagents:
2 tsp Dijon Mustard
3/4-1 Cup Canola Oil
1 Tbsp Fresh Lemon Juice
Salt and Pepper to Taste
C. Procedure Outline:
1. In a large bowl add the Dijon mustard.
2. SLOWLY begin to add the oil almost one drop at a time while constantly whisking.
3. When the desired consistency is reached, add the lemon juice and salt to taste.

4. Store in a refrigerator for up to 5 days.
D. Actual Procedure:
We began this culinary obstacle with the same technique from before minus the yolk. We began to vigorously beat the mustard while slowly adding the oil. At first the mixture took on an identical appearance as before but as the oil continued to be added our concoction began to become the identical twin to our neighbors first experiment disaster. Everything began to separate and we quickly realized we were not going to be making mayonnaise but rather a very simple mustard vinegarette! We were jinxed. Without adding the lemon juice or salt we quickly realized the experiment was over.
E. Discussion and Conclusion:
I don't want to sound like a little miss know it all but I knew before this experiment even began that it was "bunk". How could this possibly work if we were missing the most important ingredient, the egg yolk? We were missing our lecithin and therefore our emulsion could not possibly occur making the production of Mayonnaise from the faulty ingredients an impossibly feat.

A. Title: Butter (Thanks to Julia Childs one can never have too much butter!)
B. Reagents:
1 Cup Heavy Cream
Salt to Taste
C. Procedure Outline:
1. In a large bowl, whisk the cream until it turns to butter.

2. Pour off the butter milk and reserve.

3. Add salt to taste.

D. Actual Procedure:
This was even more of a bicep workout than the mayo was. I think I even broke a sweat (no worries...no additional salty sweat was added in the making). This recipe was as easy as it sounds. To make butter you beat cream. A lot. I think my partner and I were beating the cream for a good 15 minutes (which felt a lot longer at the time and who knows....may have only been 2 minutes). Our cream started to get quite thick and we believed we were finished. Upon inspection we were saddened to find that we were no where near the finish line and the beating continued. I am so glad that I invested in a kitchen-aid mixer at home just in case I ever have to do this again! Our cream that was once a pure winter's white in color soon became a creamy buttercup yellow. We were promised that we would see production of buttermilk and boy was that promise kept! Almost within the blink of an eye buttermilk was produced and the butter we were hoping for magically appeared. It was amazing. I have never seen anything so quickly and so gorgeous in my life. Ok I may be over-stating it but it was pretty dang amazing. Add a little salt and the most organic butter you ever saw was made. Yum. However, one moment on the lips and forever on the hips stopped me at one small sampler.
E. Discussion and Conclusion:
The ideal temperature for making of butter is 55-65 degrees F. Although temperature is important, the whipping of the cream is most crucial. Butter is a water-in-oil emulsion resulting from an inversion of the cream, an oil-in-water emulsion; the milk proteins are the emulsifiers. Whipping the cream pushes the fat globules into each other so much that they break through the protective membrane, and liquid fat glues the droplets together. The cream is full of proteins and fat. When you whip the cream and agitate the fat globules, they stick together to form butter. The leftover liquid is called buttermilk and it is full of protein. This could not be done without the chemistry of emulsion.

A. Title: Vanilla Pudding Experiment #1 (Cornstarch)
B. Reagents:
1/2 Cup Sugar
3 Tbsp Cornstarch
2 Eggs (Slightly Beaten)
1/4 Tsp Salt
2 Cups Milk
3 Tbsp Butter
1 Tbsp Vanilla
C. Procedure Outline:
1. In a large bowl, combine sugar and cornstarch; whisk together. Add the eggs and salt, stirring to combine. Set aside until ready to use.
2. Add the milk to a large saucepan. Bring to a boil.
3. Slowly pour the hot milk into the egg mixture (to temper the eggs) while stirring constantly.
4. Pour the egg mixture into the sauce pan and return to the stove.

5. Continue heating until the mixture comes to a boil and thickens.
6. Remove from heat and strain into a clean bowl.
7. Add the freshly made butter and vanilla. Stir to incorporate.
D. Actual Procedure:
This was a fairly simple recipe to follow. When the eggs were added to the sugar and cornstarch it developed into a thick, brilliant yellow porridge-looking mixture. When the milk was added to the stove it was a bit nerve-racking as the ease of scortching was very apparent, yet our milk came out un-scathed. The milk was slowly added (I emphasize: very slowly added to avoid scrabbling of any sort) with a constant whisking of the mixture and then was entirely added to the saucepan for more heating. The liquid rapidly formed into a thick pudding. Thankfully to a quick beating hand our pudding was very smooth and did not require the use of a strainer which saved one dish from needing to be washed. A ball of approximately 3 Tbsp of previously spoken of butter was added along with a very generous portion of vanilla. Wow. A-mazing. Oh so good and on such a cold day this pudding was a near second to a cup of cocoa.
E. Discussion and Conclusion:
Although the taste of mayonnaise and pudding are quite different the science is so close to home. They both are made at the generous hand of the emulsifier...the egg and a new addition to the pudding-cornstarch. I personally love the feel of cornstarch. So smooth and fine, I have always loved to play around with it. Strange, I know. Starch molecules are formed by many glucose molecules bonded together in two forms of chains. One is made of straight chains of amylose and the other of branched chains of amylopectin. Starch becomes most useful when it is heated in hot water which releases enough energy to alter the weaker regions of the granule and enable hydrogen bonding between starch and water molecules. The amazing part of this recipe is that you can see this occur. The mixture starts off very runny and liquid-like, a tiny bit thicker than milk. Once heated, suddenly you see the thickness increase which is the demonstration of the granules absorbing water and swelling which places a large stress on the crystalline regions of the molecules creating a smooth and some-what gelatinous cream. This occurs because the mixture become networks of starch and water intermingled. The transformation can easily be recognized as the mixture shows the initial cloudy suspension of granules and then they suddenly become more translucent. The individual starch molecules are not packed so tightly that the mixture appears to be clear.

A. Title: Vanilla Pudding Experiment #2 (flour)
B. Reagents:
1/2 Cup Sugar
3 Tbsp Flour
2 Eggs (Slightly Beaten)
1/4 Tsp Salt
2 Cups Milk
3 Tbsp Butter
1 Tbsp Vanilla
C. Procedure Outline:
1. In a large bowl, combine sugar and flour; whisk together. Add the eggs and salt and stir to combine. Set aside until ready to use.
2. Add the milk to a large saucepan. Bring to a boil.
3. Slowly pour the hot milk into the egg mixture (to temper the eggs) while stirring constantly.
4. Pour the egg mixture into the sauce pan and return to the stove.

5. Continue heating until the mixture comes to a boil and thickens.
6. Remove from heat and strain into a clean blow.
7. Add the freshly made butter and vanilla. Stir to incorporate.
D. Actual Procedure:
This recipe was followed identical to that of the above recipe but somehow turned out a bit lumpy. I don't recall getting lazy but perhaps after all of the mixing of the evening I lost my vigor for the whisk. We could have used the strainer but the lumps were barely noticeable especially to the taste.
E. Discussion and Conclusion:
Obviously the only change between the two recipes were that of flour vs. cornstarch. I personally preferred the starch to the flour as I thought it brought more of a creamy and smooth texture but there were those in class who would disagree. I took both of the puddings home and have to say that both were better fresh off the stove as once they set up in the fridge their consistency was very thick and almost gelatinous. Unlike it's cousin the cornstarch, flour is not as clear once the crystalline structures fail, and an opague and dull appearance is formed. In tasting the two puddings it was noticed that the latter had more of a "flour" flavor which actually required more cooking to rid of the "raw" taste. Flour also required a longer cooking time to unleash its thickening agent powers.